Vernellia R. Randall , The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, First Year Law Students and Performance , 26 Cumb. L. Rev. 63 - 101 (1995) 

Some researchers believe that learning "is the most important concept to demand attention in education in many years . . . ,"⁽²²⁾ others have called it the "foundation of a truly modern education."⁽²³⁾ The phrase "learning style" first came into use when researchers began to search for specific strategies for matching course presentation and materials to students' needs.⁽²⁴⁾ 

Learning style is a student's way of responding to, and using, stimuli in the context of learning.⁽²⁵⁾ It refers to a person's characteristic style of acquiring and using information in learning and solving problems. Using the layers of an onion as a metaphor for the different levels of a person's learning style, the core of a learning style is a person's basic characteristics of personality.⁽²⁶⁾ Personality models of learning styles deal with the basic characteristics that a person brings to the learning situation. Personality characteristics are the most stable and the least subject to change in response to intervention by a researcher or instructor.⁽²⁷⁾ Personality models include: (1) field dependence and independence;⁽²⁸⁾ (2) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator; (3) reflectivity versus impulsivity models; ⁽²⁹⁾(4) Omnibus Personality Inventory;⁽³⁰⁾ and (5) The Holland Typology of Personality. ⁽³¹⁾ 

The second layer of the learning style onion is the person's information processing style.⁽³²⁾ Information processing models of learning styles deals with how people take in and process information. Information processing models include: (1) comprehensive learners versus operation learners;⁽³³⁾  (2) conceptual versus factual learner (sequencing of information) models;⁽³⁴⁾ (3) deep-elaborative versus shallow-reiterative models;⁽³⁵⁾ (4) Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning;⁽³⁶⁾ and the (5) Gregorc model.⁽³⁷⁾ 

The third layer of the learning style onion is the person's social interaction styles.⁽³⁸⁾ Students learn better in settings that meet their social-emotional needs and in social situations that are attuned to their predominant pattern of behavior. Social-interaction models of learning styles include: (1) Mann's Research based on personality clusters;⁽³⁹⁾ (2) Grasha-Reichman Student Learning Style Scales;⁽⁴⁰⁾ (3) Furmann-Jacobs model; ⁽⁴¹⁾and (4) Eison's Learning and Grade orientation.⁽⁴²⁾ 

The final layer of the learning style onion is the person's instructional preference and learning environment.⁽⁴³⁾ Instructional style models are concerned with students preferences for particular teaching methods. Instructional style models of learning style include: (1) cognitive mapping;⁽⁴⁴⁾ and (2) Canfield Learning Style Inventory.⁽⁴⁵⁾ 

The traits identified by the different learning style measures are not discrete and each level influences the other.⁽⁴⁶⁾ Nevertheless, information from learning styles can help faculty become more sensitive to the diversity among students. In particular, this information can help faculty to design a broad range of learning experiences to meet the needs of the varied learning styles of students.⁽⁴⁷⁾ Perhaps most importantly, in a self-directed learning situation, learning style information can help a student to become a better student. The more students know about their own styles, the better they can study and thus also increase their chances of succeeding. Learning style information gives students a greater appreciation of their strengths and helps them become more deliberate in their learning.⁽⁴⁸⁾ Once law professors and law students understand the student's learning style, they can work together to help the student develop strategies for learning in styles different from their own.⁽⁴⁹⁾ 

This study used the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) primarily because it is a personality model that is less susceptible to changes in the legal education environment. The MBTI has been widely used in over 100 research studies.⁽⁵⁰⁾ Researchers have found that, while it is not comprehensive, this model has many strengths that other instruments do not possess.⁽⁵¹⁾ For instance, the MBTI is better normed than most learning style instruments. ⁽⁵²⁾Furthermore, the MBTI is more "sophisticated and complex" in that it identifies more approaches to learning.⁽⁵³⁾ 

22. FN22. Charles S. Claxton & Patricia H. Murrell, Learning Styles: Implications for Improving Education Practices 1 (1987). 

23. FN23. Rita Dunn, Rita Dunn Answers Questions on Learning Styles, 48 Educ. Lead., Oct. 1990, at 15-19. 

24. FN24. Claxton & Murrell, supra note 22, at 71. See generally Rita Dunn et al., Learning Style Researchers Define Differences Differently, 38 Educ. Lead. 372, 372-75 (1981) (explaining that although widespread agreement supports the existence of individual differences in learning, researches define the concept differently). 

25. FN25. Claxton & Murrell, supra note 22, at 71. 

26. FN26. Id. at 20-21. 

27. FN27. Id. 

28. FN28. Id. at 8-13. People who are significantly influenced by their surroundings are "field dependent," while those who are relatively uninfluenced by surroundings are "field independent." Thus, field dependent individuals are strongly influenced by authority figures and peer groups. Field independent individuals tend to be more autonomous. Furthermore, field dependents and field independents exhibit different speech patterns. For instance, field independents use more personal pronouns and active verbs than field dependents. Id. at 9. 

29. FN29. Claxton & Murrell, supra note 22, at 16-17. This model addresses how individuals respond to problems with highly uncertain responses. It looks at an individuals tendency to reflect over alternative solutions (reflectivity) and the individual's tendency to make an impulsive selection of a solution (impulsivity). Id. at 17. 

30. FN30. Id. at 17-18. This instrument looks at the modes of thinking, ways of handling feelings and impulses, and ways of relating to self and others. Id. at 18. This scale is helpful in making students aware of how they think and how it meshes with how their disciplines think. Id. at 20. 

31. FN31. Id. at 18-19. The Holland typology of personality identifies six personality types: realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising and artistic. Id. Each of these personality types have a preference for a certain learning environment. Id. 

32. FN32. Id. at 21. 

33. FN33. There are two basic strategies for processing information: holistic or comprehensive learners and serialistic or operation learners. Id. at 21-22. Comprehensive learners use a global approach to learning and develop a broad framework for understanding the information. Typically, they will start at the top, examine several aspects of the subject at the same time, and make connections constantly between the theoretical aspects of the subject and the practical implications of the information. Id. at 21. Operation learners, on the other hand, focus their attention on pieces of information and develop understanding through "logical, sequential and well-defined steps." The theoretical aspects and the practical implication of information are learned in separate steps. As a result of these differences in information processing, comprehensive learners are better at description building, while operation learners are better at procedure building. Id. at 22-23 

34. FN34. Id. at 23-24. How one sequences information is clearly related to learning style. Some researchers believe students learn more effectively when they are first taught general concepts and then later taught details and examples. Id. at 23. Others believe sequencing depends on different learning styles. That is, some learners prefer factual content and are not motivated to interrelate the facts into a complex framework. Thus, these factual learners are most effective when the facts-concept sequence is implemented. While other learners see facts as merely an element to be related to the broader contextual whole, conceptual learners are more effective with a concepts-facts sequence. Id. at 23-24. 

35. FN35. Id. at 24. This learning style looks at the predisposition of a student to adopt a particular learning strategy regardless of the learning task. Thus, deep-elaborative processors devote more time and attention to meaning and classification of an idea than to learning a fact. While shallow-reiterative processors focus on learning the fact. Id. at 24-25. 

36. FN36. Id. at 25-33. Kolb's learning style looks at how the person and the environment interacts to promote learning. The fundamental elements in this learning theory focuses on the taking in of information and the transforming of the information. Some people prefer to take information in concrete ways, while others prefer more abstract means. Having taken in the information, some individuals prefer to process the information through reflecting on the information, while others prefer to process through active experimentation. Id. at 27-33. 

37. FN37. Id. at 33-35. This instrument is based on the idea that learning styles emerge from innate predispositions (random versus sequential) and that individuals learn both through concrete experience and abstraction. Id. at 33. The instrument identifies four types of learners. Concrete sequential learners prefer obtaining information from direct, hands-on experience. Concrete random learners prefer to learn with active experimentation -- a trial and error method. Abstract sequential learners prefer obtaining information from written and verbal symbols. Abstract random learners prefer to obtain information from the nuances of mood and atmosphere. Id. at 33-35. 

38. FN38. Id. at 7. 

39. FN39. Id. at 37-40. This model is based on the behavior of students in the class room. It identifies seven categories of student behavior: compliant, anxious-dependent, discouraged worker, independent, heroes, snipers, attention seekers and silent. Id. at 38. Compliant learners adapt themselves to the demands of the classroom and the teacher. Id. They conform, are task-oriented and are non-rebellious. Id. Anxious-dependent students are angry, frustrated and dependent. Id. They tend to have low verbal skills. Id. Discouraged workers have feelings of mixed-self-esteem, they feel guilt, are depressed and are dissatisfied with themselves. Id. 38-39. Independent students are secure, individualistic, and often aloof. Id. at 39. Heroes are rebellious with feelings of superiority, however they tend to be underachievers. Id. Snipers are much like heroes except they tend to be more defensive and to have low self esteem. Id. Attention seekers are predominately socially oriented. They joke, brag, talk and show off. Id. The silent students are a very large group. Id. These students want attention but fear of failure forces them into silence. Id. at 40. 

40. FN40. Id. at 40-41. This model focuses on three classroom dimensions: students' attitudes toward learning, their views of the teacher or peers or both, and their reaction to classroom procedures. Id. at 40. Based on assessment of these dimensions, students are divided into six learning styles: independent, dependent, collaborative, competitive, students, and avoidant. Id. at 40-41. Based on these classifications, classroom activity preferences have been identified for each style. Id. at 40-41. 

41. FN41. Id. at 42. This model involves three styles: dependent, collaborative, and independent. Id. However, the style that the student demonstrates will be tied to the learning situation. Id. For example, dependent learning style may occur in introductory courses where the student has little or no information on entering the course. Id. Collaborative learning style may occur when the learner has some knowledge, information and ideas to share with others. Id. at 44. Independent learning style occurs when the student has knowledge and skills about the subject matter and wants to continue to learn on his or her own, or when the student feels the teacher cannot offer as much as he or she already knows. Id. 

42. FN42. Id at 42-46. This model is based on students' attitudes toward grading and classroom learning. Id. That is, learning-oriented students see the classroom as a place to find information and ideas, while grade-oriented students see the classroom as the place where they will be tested and graded. Id. at 43, 45. It is a place they endure in order to obtain a degree or certification. Id. at 43. The model includes four orientations: High Learning/High Grade Orientation, High Learning/Low Grade Orientation, Low Learning/High Grade Orientation and Low Learning/Low Grade Orientation. Id. at 43, 45. 

43. FN43. Id. at 7. 

44. FN44. Id. at 46-51. Cognitive mapping assesses a students learning style in an extensive comprehensive framework called "educational sciences." Id. at 47. It includes symbols and their meanings, cultural influences on the meanings of symbols, the method through which a person makes inferences, biochemical and electrophysiological aspects of memory, cognitive style, teaching, counseling, administrative style, and systematic analysis decision making. Id. at 47. 

45. FN45. Id. at 51-53. This model developed scales in four areas: conditions of learning, content preferences, mode preferences and students' expectations as to grades. Id. 

46. FN46. Id. at 77. 

47. FN47. Id. 

48. FN48. Id. at 37. 

49. FN49. Id at 77. 

50. FN50. Gordon Lawrence, A Synthesis of Learning Style Research Involving the MBTI, 8 J. Psychol. Type 2, 2 (1984). Lawrence synthesized the studies into major categories: validation studies in which the MBTI preference scores were correlated with scales of other instruments; studies which used the MBTI to identify styles; and studies which dealt with the types rather than the four dimensions of type. He concluded that despite the wide spread use of the MBTI and the consistency of the findings, the scope of research undertaken to examine the MBTI as an indicator of learning has been limited. See id. 

51. FN51. George H. Jensen, Learning Styles, in Application of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in Higher Education 181 (Judith A. Provost & Scott Anchors eds. 1987). 

52. FN52. Id. 

53. FN53. Id.